UC Mosquito Research Program: Overview and Timeline

The Problem. Mosquitoes have long impacted the lives of California residents. Decades before California became a state in 1850, unmitigated mosquito breeding in the lowlands, marshes and other wetlands, especially during seasonal flooding, created problems for the first inhabitants, the Native Americans. Mosquito-borne diseases also flourished among the pioneers and gold seekers in the 1850s. Species of Anopheles attacked the burgeoning population, resulting in malaria epidemics. (Thanks to mosquito surveillance, research and control, malaria has erupted only occasionally since World War II, appearing in small, scattered outbreaks.)

Mosquito Control Origins. The origins of organized mosquito control in California began in the Bay Area in the early 1900s. Salt marshes ringed the San Francisco Bay, producing massive numbers of mosquitoes that disrupted the lives of residents. Mosquitoes so infested the area that commuters wore head nets while waiting for the Marin-San Francisco ferry. Businesses set out smudge pots to discourage the insects. Initially, control efforts focused on constructing drainage canals and ditches in these marsh areas.

Malaria and West Nile Disease. In 1909, malaria claimed 112 lives in California, resulting in more attention toward mosquito abatement. Research showed that mosquito-borne diseases could be managed by implementing mosquito control methods. The mosquito-borne disease, West Nile virus (WNN). was first reported in the United States (New York) in 1999 and in California in 2002. Since 1999, WNV has caused more than 16,000 cases of human illness, including more than 650 deaths in the United States. In 2005, 18 Californians died of the disease, and more than 900 others were infected. Sacramento County last year showed more incidences of the disease than any other county in the United States.

Mosquito Abatement Act. On May 25, 1915, the California State Legislature passed the Mosquito Abatement Act, giving local governments the power to obtain revenues and form special districts to protect the public from the hazards of mosquito bites and mosquito-borne diseases. That same year a small group of districts formed. Today more than 60 organized mosquito control agencies serve the residents of California.

Mosquito and Vector Control Association of California (MVCAC). MVCAC represents some 63 mosquito and vector control programs covering more than 32 million California residents inside 38,000 square miles. The state’s mosquito control program, widely regarded as one of most effective in the world, has greatly limited or eliminated the transmission of once-common mosquito-borne diseases, including malaria.

The California districts incorporate a three-pronged attack —surveillance, public education and mosquito control.

Surveillance determines the presence of the pathogen before human transmission becomes epidemic, and helps target control efforts.

Public education includes how to design, set up and manage large mosquito control programs. Among the logistics: financial, managerial, personnel and legal issues.

Mosquito control employs the latest physical, biological and chemical means to reduce mosquito populations near population centers. Tailored for a wide variety of landscapes, wetlands and population centers, the control methods include the use of mosquito fish; sensible irrigation practices and landscape alterations to reduce breeding sources; larvicides; and ground-based or aerial pesticide applications.

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Timeline

Pre-Gold Rush (1849): Unmitigated mosquito breeding occurs in the lowlands, marshes and other wetlands in California, especially during seasonal flooding. Native Americans move elsewhere to avoid mosquito bites and diseases.
1849: Species of Anopheles attack Gold Rush miners, pioneers and Native American Indians, resulting in malaria epidemics.
1903: Entomologist C. W. Woodworth (1865-1940), founder of the Department of Entomology at the University of California, Berkeley and later the UC Davis Department of Entomology, researches salt marsh mosquitoes, Aedes squamiger, in the San Francisco Bay area.
1904: William C. Gorgas of the U.S. Army Medical Corps begins a campaign to eliminate disease-carrying mosquitoes and rodents in the Canal Zone. Within two years he wipes out yellow fever, eliminates the rats that carry bubonic plague, and greatly reduces the malaria death rate.
1905: UC Berkeley entomologist and professor H. J. Quayle researches salt marsh mosquitoes in the Bay Area .
1906: Quayle writes the University of California Bulletin 178, Mosquito Control, the first definitive paper on California mosquitoes.
1908-1910: Entomologist and UC professor William B. Herms ("First, know well the mosquito") travels throughout California to demonstrate how Anopheline mosquitoes transmit malaria.
1909: California reports 6,000 cases of malaria and 112 fatalities, resulting in increased attention toward abating mosquitoes.
1910: The state's first anti-malaria campaign begins in Penryn. The Penryn Fruit Company and entomologists William B. Herms and Harold F. Gray help form the program.
1910: A statewide anti-malaria campaign is organized in Oroville.
1911: Gov. Hiram Johnson vetoes the Quill Bill, which would have authorized the formation of mosquito control districts. The State Legislature had earlier approved it.
1915: Gov. Hiram Johnson, on May 25, signs the Mosquito Abatement Districts Act, which authorizes the formation of mosquito control districts in the State of California. It gives local governments the power to obtain revenues and form special districts to protect the public from the hazards of mosquito bites and mosquito-borne diseases. That same year a small group of districts form. Today more than 60 organized mosquito control agencies serve California residents.
- California is among the first of the states to organize mosquito control as a public service program.
1920: UC entomologist William B. Herms and engineer Harold F. Gray form the California Mosquito Control Association (CMCA), later to become the Mosquito and Vector Control Association of California.
1922: Mosquitofish (Gambusia affinis) are introduced into California to control mosquitoes.
1926: UC entomologist and professor Stanley B. Freeborn (and later UC Davis chancellor from 1958-1959) publishes the first guide to the biology and identification of California mosquitoes, Mosquitoes of California, an indepth taxonomic study of 27 species. Later, UC entomologist William C. Reeves compiles a list which includes 11 additional species.
1930: K. F. Meyer and his coworkers isolate the Western Equine Encephalomyelitis (WEE) virus from the brain of a Merced County horse.
- Mosquito abatement districts throughout the state now include 17.
1931: The District Investigation Act is passed in California to limit the formation of districts.
1935: The American Mosquito Control Association is formed.
1936: Encephalitis is now a reportable disease.
1941: W. McD. Hammon and his co-workers report the isolation of both Saint Louis and Western Equine Encephalomyelitis viruses from Culex tarsalis.
1942: Research begins on DDT as a mosquito control agent.
1947: The state's Bureau of Vector Control, Department of Health, is organized July 1, 1947, and includes operational research as one of its objectives.
- The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) is passed. The act requires that all pesticides be registered with the U. S. Department of Agriculture prior to being marketed or shipped into interstate commerce.
1949: Researchers report that mosquitoes in California are showing physiological resistance to DDT. During the next few years, resistance to a number of other organochlorine compounds and to some organophosphates will be detected as well.
1950s-1960s: Research on the biology, control and public health importance of mosquitoes is intensified by both the University of California and the Bureau of Vector Control (BVC) of the State Department of Public Health.
1950s: The 1950s see the close of the brief post-World War II period during which DDT was the most widely used material for mosquito abatement.
1951: Entomologist Stanley B. Freeborn and R. M. Bohart author the second edition of Mosquitoes of California.
- Malaria outbreak at Vera Lake among Girl Scouts from Alameda County.
1952: California experiences an encephalitis epidemic (420 cases).
1954: The Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act of 1910 is amended, formalizing the procedure of setting pesticide tolerances by the Food and Drug Administration.
1958: The CMCA feels a need for greater coordination of mosquito research activities in the state, and establishes a Research Committee on March 21, 1958.
1959: The Delaney Clause further amends the Pure Food Law by stating that any chemical found to cause cancer in laboratory animals may not appear in food intended for humans.
- The establishment of the CMCA Research Committee further increases the emphasis on expansion and coordination of mosquito research in California. In September, the Research Committee presents recommendations for establishment of a source of funding for a program of research on “mosquitoes and other vectors." Recommendations included, among other things, the establishment of a center for mosquito research at UC Davis, and establishment of funds for operation of a mosquito research program within the budget of the BVC.
1960: The CMCA Research Committee submits a position paper outlining needs for mosquito research in California.
1962: Rachel Carson publishes the book The Silent Spring and a new wave of public consciousness and concern sweeps the nation about chemical use.
1963: Efforts to expand the research program and to achieve greater coordination continue. The State Department of Public Health Services and the University of California publish a joint report on mosquito control research. Coupled with this report is the establishment of the “Joint Committee of the State Department of Public Health and the University of California on Research on Arthropods of Health Importance” to coordinate research efforts.
1964: FIFRA is amended requiring registration numbers and signal words on labels. Manufacturers must prove safety of materials rather than government proving hazard.
1965: UC publishes Proposed Expanded Program of the University of California for the Control of Mosquitoes Affecting the Health and Well Being of Man. BVC and CMVCA strongly support the proposal. In the course of acting upon requests for funding for mosquito control research from both BVC and UC in 1965, a legislative conference committee decrees that BVC discontinue State Public Health Department-staffed mosquito control research. BVC gives the university a research contract of $123,385 for the fiscal year 1965-66, utilizing BVC research personnel.
1966: Endangered Species Preservation Act is passed.
- For 1966-67, the State Legislature authorizes an expenditure of $200,000 for UC mosquito research but provides only $100,000 from the State Water Fund. The legislature also transfers $115,815 from the Department of Public Health to UC. This is divided, in turn, between the School of Public Health ($32,500) and the Division of Agriculture ($84,315) for operation of the Fresno Field Laboratory (now the Mosquito Control Research Laboratory at the Kearney Agricultural Center).
1970: The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is created and it assumes responsibility for administering FIFRA.
- Sen. Fred W. Marler, Jr. of Redding introduces Senate Bill 310, which calls for the appropriation of $325,000 for mosquito control research in agricultural sciences and $50,000 for mosquito control research in the School of Public Health, Berkeley. A companion bill (311) calls for the appropriation of $102,000 for personnel in the Department of Public Health to support mosquito abatement.
- The California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) is passed. The act requires environmental assessments of any proposed projects.
- The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) is passed.
- The State Legislature passes the California Endangered Species Act (CESA).
1972: The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act is passed. Mosquito control personnel now need to be certified.
- The funds for Senate Bill 310 are finally appropriated for 1972-73, and include $200,000 in addition to the $100,000 State Water Fund money. This represents the beginning of the UC Mosquito Research Program, a statewide program of the Agricultural and Natural Resources. The former research guidance committee (the Smith Committee) was replaced by the Mosquito Research Technical Committee with James Kendrick as chairman. Other members include Charles Schaefer, Robert Washino, Don Womeldorf and Mir Mulla. Mel Oldham served as an ex-officio member as chairman of the CMVCA Research Committee.
- The UC president appoints an advisory committee on mosquito research with the following charge: "This committee will advise the president on the allocation of state funds earmarked for mosquito research. It will also specify and evaluate priority research problems that need investigation, as well as reviewing and evaluating the university’s ongoing program in mosquito research."
- Carl Mitchell is hired as a cooperative extension specialist to direct and coordinate the UC Mosquito Research Program.
- DDT is banned as an insecticide for use in the United States.
1973: The federal Endangered Species Act (ESA) is passed.
- UC Mosquito Research Program receives $300,000 in appropriated funds, in addition to the $100,000 water funds.
1975: Methoprene (a synthetic juvenile hormone) is registered as a biological pesticide.
1976: Carl Mitchell resigns as director of the UC Mosquito Research Program to take a position with the Centers for Disease Control, USPHS. Russell Fontaine is hired to replace him.
1977: L. Goldberg and J. Margalit report the discovery of a new bacterial strain of Bacillus thuringiensis collected from mosquitoes in the Negev desert in Israel.
1978: Entomologists R. M. Bohart and R. K. Washino of UC Davis author the third edition of the Agriculture and Natural Resources publication, Mosquitoes of California.
1980: Wampler amendment to FIFRA passes, requiring peer review of scientific studies funded by the EPA.
- Vector Control Joint Powers Agency is formed to provide self-insurance for Mosquito and Vector Control Districts.
1981: The U. S. EPA registers Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis (Bti).
1986: Russell Fontaine retires as director of the UC Mosquito Research Program. Bruce Eldridge succeeds him.
1991::The U.S. EPA registers Bacillus sphaericus (Bs).
1997: Proposition 218, known as "The Right to Vote on Taxes Act," is passed making it more difficult for local agencies to establish benefit assessments.
1999: West Nile Virus is first identified in the United States (New York).
2001: James Lyons of the Department of Vegetable Crops, UC Davis, begins serving as interim director of the UC Mosquito Research Program.
2002: West Nile Virus is first identified in California.
2002: James Lyons steps down as interim director of the UC Mosquito Research Program and Gregory Lanzaro is named the director in August.
2003: West Nile virus completes its spread across the continental United States. California experiences three human cases.
- In March, the UC Mosquito Research Program submits a grant application to the National Institutes of Health for research on the control of Culex mosquitoes, the principal vectors of West Nile virus in California. This proposal is funded with a grant of $3.5 million for the period September 2003 through February 2008.
- The total amount budgeted for the UC Mosquito Research Program for 2003 is $578,947.
- The 2003 Culex control program marks the first time in its history that the UC Mosquito Research Program has served to coordinate, submit and administer an extramurally funded research project.
- Research on arbovirus disease ecology in the state is attracting worldwide attention.
2003: Gregory Lanzaro, director of the UC Mosquito Research Program, receives $2.3 million grant from the National Institutes of Health to study the Culex mosquito: Control of Urban and Peri-urban Culex Mosquitoes. This marks the first time the program has received extramural funding.
2004: The Mosquito Research Program takes a 27 percent budget cut, receiving a base budget of $424,208. This comes at a time when the need for research on mosquito-transmitted diseases in California has never been greater, program officials lament.
2004: California is the epicenter for West Nile virus activity in the United States, with 774 human cases, followed by Arizona with 391 and Colorado with 291. California records a record 28 human fatalities due to WNV.
2005: California continues to be the epicenter for West Nile virus activity in the United States, with 880 human cases, followed by Illinois with 252, and South Dakota with 229. California leads the nation with 19 human fatalities.
2005: The two-person UC Mosquito Research Program office (Gregory Lanzaro, director since 2002 and Nancy Dullum, administrative assistant since 1994) expands with the addition of communications specialist Kathy Keatley Garvey (writer, photographer, Web developer) in October.
2006: UC Mosquito Research Program forms the UC Malaria Research and Control Group in February to battle malaria in Africa, launches a Web site, and makes plans for an organizational meeting. The 21-member team is comprised of scientists from four campuses partnering with the Mosquito and Vector Control Association of California:
UC Davis: Anthony Cornel, Bruce Hammock, Sharon Lawler, Walter Leal, Shirley Luckhart, Sergey V. Nuzhdin, William Reisen and Thomas Scott
UC Irvine: Timothy Bradley, Anthony James and Guiyun Yan
UCLA: Charles Taylor
UC Riverside: Peter Atkinson, Timothy Bradley, Ring T. Carde, Brian A. Federici, Sarjeet S. Gill, Karine Le Roch, Alexander S. Raikhel and William Walton
Mosquito Vector and Control Association of California: Christopher Voight
2006: The UC Malaria Research and Control Group holds its organizational meeting on May 16.
2006: A four-member delegation from the UC Malaria Research and Control Group travels to Tanzania in October to develop collaborations and build partnerships for malaria control and research. The delegation is comprised of UC Davis medical entomologists Gregory Lanzaro and Anthony Cornel and representatives from the Mosquito and Vector Control Association of California, Steve Mulligan, manager of the Consolidated Mosquito Abatement District, Selma, and Major Dhillon, manager of the Northwest Mosquito and Vector Control District, Corona.
2006: By special invitation, Gregory Lanzaro attends the White House Summit on Malaria on Dec. 14. He reports that "it will raise "awareness of malaria and mobilize a grassroots effort to save millions of lives in Africa.”
2006: A scientist from a fifth UC campus--Michael Levine of UC Berkeley--joins the UC Malaria Research and Control Group in March.
2006: California continues to rank among the top three states with the most West Nile virus activity. Texas now leads the nation with 347 human cases, followed by Colorado with 345, and California with 278 cases. Records show seven fatalities in California. Texas leads the nation with 31.
2007: The UC Mosquito Research Program begins finalizing plans for the first-ever UC Davis Malaria Awareness Day, scheduling it from noon to 2:30 p.m., Wednesday, April 25 in the Main Theatre, Wright Hall. Chancellor Larry Vanderhoef will deliver introductory remarks. Speakers are from the UC Davis School of Veterinary Medicine, UC Davis College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, UC Davis School of Medicine, and UC Francisco School of Medicine.

History of the UC Davis Department of Entomology